Crime Prevention for Firefighters: CPTED for CRR

What is CPTED?

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) is the concept of crime prevention and neighborhood safety accomplished through natural elements and structural design. CPTED utilizes four strategies that contribute to “the proper design and effective use of the built environment that can lead to a reduction in the fear and incidence of crime and an improvement in the quality of life” within a community. The CPTED strategies are natural surveillance, natural access control,territorial reinforcement, and maintenance.

Natural Surveillance. This utilizes the placement of physical features, activities, and people in a way that maximizes visibility. This is accomplished through landscape design, lighting, and elimination of ambush points. These elements all promote more eyes on the street, and within the buildings where necessary.

Natural Access Control. This means controlling access to a site by its inherent design. This is accomplished through strategic design of streets, sidewalks, building entrances, and landscaping. These design elements can ensure that entrances are visible and clearly defined, well lighted, and take full advantage of natural surveillance.

Territorial Reinforcement. This strategy appeals to peoples’ sense of ownership. This is the use of physical attributes that express ownership such as, fencing, pavement design, walking paths, signage, landscaping, and public art. Territorial reinforcement encompasses the principles of natural surveillance and access control.

Maintenance. This allows for continued use of the space, and is a critical component of CPTED. If the other strategies of CPTED are utilized, but never maintained, then CPTED will fail. Maintenance serves as an expression of territorial reinforcement by showing property ownership, it prevents reduced visibility from overgrown landscape, and obstructed or inoperative lighting.

CPTED and CRR

CPTED is a largely unheard of concept to the fire service. However, it is a concept that the fire service should fully embrace. In recent years the fire department concept of Community Risk Reduction (CRR) has prevailed. This is the concept of reducing risk of all types, not just fire, within a community. CPTED ties directly into the goals and objectives of a CRR program and benefits the community, first responders, and designers. 

Understanding CPTED principles and strategies can be advantageous to the community and the fire service in a multitude of ways. Reduced crime means lower number of emergency responses. More eyes on the street and people out, means faster response when emergencies do occur.  
CPTED as part of a CRR strategy contributes to safety of fire department personnel and first responders. Maintenance of property, natural surveillance, access control, can eliminate ambush points and make areas and structures safer for first responders. 

CPTED should also be applied for the fire protection and emergency management planning and building design. A holistic approach to building design and occupant safety is not complete without taking into account the risks, and perceived risks, of crime or potential threats. Applying CPTED principles can completely change, in the best way, the fire protection design and emergency response plan.

Codes and Standards

CPTED is in the codes and standards. NFPA 730, Guide for Premises Security, has a chapter dedicated to “Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design”.  This chapter outlines requirements for lighting and landscape, and is referenced from other chapters within NFPA 730. Chapters 11-20 of this document cover specific occupancy types such as educational facilities, health care facilities, restaurants, shopping centers, retail, and more. Within each of these chapters is a section on CPTED as it directly relates to the occupancy type. Though NFPA 730 is only a guide, it can be utilized and implemented into a fire department's CRR and plans review process.

NFPA 101, Life Safety Code, will have its first draft meeting on January 18. At this meeting Public Input #188 will be voted on for inclusion in the document. The goal of this public input is to insert a reference to CPTED principles. The proposed language and substantiation is, as follows:

New section, 4.9 Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. In new construction and when a building undergoes renovation or rehabilitation, the principles of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) shall be implemented for the occupancies as described in NFPA 730, Guide for Premises Security, Chapter 8.

Statement of Problem and Substantiation for Public Input:

The intent of NFPA 101 is for Life Safety, as stated in the A1.1.8,”Life safety in buildings includes more than safety from fire...its technical requirements respond to a wider range of concerns...Code requirements...might also assist in responding to many other hazards…” Furthermore, Sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.4 emphasize the objectives of occupant protection, and physical violence mitigation. The principles of CPTED (crime prevention through environmental design) contribute to life safety through a systematic approach to facility lighting, design, landscaping, and human factors planning. These contribute to the safety of the buildings occupants and to first responders. Application of CPTED principles can give the first responder an advance notice of unsafe conditions that may pertain to the facility or people around it. These principles are already a part of NFPA 730, the goal of this public comment is to put a pointer to these requirements for the user of NFPA 101.

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design is a strategy that can completely change a community. Employing these strategies as a component of the Community Risk Reduction program can reduce crime, reduce call volume, contribute to responder safety, and provide for a holistic design approach for buildings and community spaces.

For CPTED training and information contact Art Hushen at the National Institute of Crime Prevention.

For site assessments, plan reviews, or consulting you can schedule a free consultation with me.

Ultimate Guide to Fire Door Inspections [for Facility Managers]

Current codes and standards require that all fire doors be inspected at least annually.  Facility managers and building owners are the responsible party for ensuring that these annual fire door inspections are conducted and documented. These inspections can be performed by a "qualified person" who has understanding and knowledge of fire door components, operations, and maintenance requirements.  Documentation of these inspections should be maintained and made available to the fire code official or other authority when requested.

Though it will not make anyone a "qualified person", this interactive guide will provides an educational overview of fire doors, installations, and inspections. Topics covered include:

• Basic requirements for fire doors
• Fire door components and installation
• Inspection, testing, and maintenance requirements and resources.

Fire Doors for Fire Protection and Life Safety

Introduction to Passive Fire Protection - Gain an understanding of how fire doors interconnect with other passive building construction features to contribute fire protection and life safety.

Fire Doors? Whats the big deal? - A brief discussion of why fire doors are important and the the ratings permitted by the code.

Fire Door Testing, Components, and Installation

Testing Fire Doors - Video demonstrates fire door performance under various circumstances and installation.

Smoke Gasketing and Edge Sealing - A series of articles that discuss when and where smoke gasketing and edge sealing are required.

Proper Fire Door Installation - Video demonstrates techniques for proper fire door installation.

Benefits of Fire Door Commissioning - An introduction to fire system commissioning and the role it can play in ensuring proper fire door installation, operation, and maintenance.

Fire Door Inspections, Testing, and Maintenance

Five Step Fire Door Check - Tips for five items of a fire door that anyone can check to ensure operability. 

How to Conduct NFPA 80 Inspections - Tools and resources for creating and implementing a fire door inspection program.

Compartmentation and Fire Doors from Aaron Johnson

"Want to play a game?" [How to Survive an Escape Room]

AP Photo

The energy in the room was suddenly heightened as smoke began to slowly filter through the from some other, outside and unknown, location. How could they escape? The puzzles and riddles didn’t make sense, the clues weren’t coming together, the tumblers weren’t tumbling in the locks.   They were still trapped. With the additional stress of a real (or perceived?) emergency, clear heads became foggy, and chances of escape diminished to nearly zero. As their eyes met, the girls were suddenly and simultaneously gripped by the terror of the realization that this was going to be there permanent grave and final resting place.

The room seemed to be a perfect square or cube, considering the ceiling and floor.  The walls were the drab brown of wood paneling made even darker and dingier by the countless fingers and hand prints from others that had come before. It looked like an old office or library, maybe a study.  A bookshelf along one wall, an antique roll-top secretaries desk on the other. Loosely mounted on the wall to her back was a nearly wall-sized, sepia toned, map of the world. On the floor in the center of the room was a large round rug, probably Persian or Oriental. They didn’t know. The rug was a plush woven pattern of small star-type shapes, sewn within larger star-type shapes. Neatly positioned on the rug, was a brown leather chair. The leather was worn and scratched. A few miniature tears permitted the protrusion of wisps of cotton from the seat, back, and arms. Next to the chair, plugged directly into an outlet on the floor, was a tall slender lamp.  The lamp was a brushed bronze, with a single bulb. The bulb was surrounded by a tassled cloth lampshade. The yellow hues cast by the dark shade, added to the already low visibility within the room. Of all the rooms features and decor, the most ominous was the illuminated wall clock. The clock had been counting down. Now, as smoke filled the room, the clock had stopped at 00:28. Twenty-eight minutes until, what? How did they get here? How did they end up in this locked room? Where was the way out?

This could be the start of another film in the Saw franchise. Or, it could be the beginning of locked-room, pulp fiction mystery of the early 1900’s.  For Julia, Amelia, Gosia, Karolina, and Wiktoria, however, this is no work of fiction, instead, it was the final activity of their young lives. The five girls from Koszalin, a city in northern Poland, were celebrating the birthday at an “escape room” game attraction. What should have been a joyous and momentous occasion, a birthday party for a fifteen year-old, ended in tragedy.

A fire investigation determined that the cause of the fire was a gas leak in the heating system. Local fire authorities also noted the presence of faulty, non-compliant electrical wiring co-mingled with flammable materials. The fire started in the lobby or one of the other rooms of the establishment, and smoke filled into the girls locked escape room. One employee was taken to the hospital in serious condition from direct burns to his body. One report states that the firefighter had significant difficult entering the building to extinguish the fire and recover the girls. This is consistent with statements that the injured employee had tried to get to the escape room but could not due to fire damage.

The girls cause of death was ruled carbon monoxide poisoning. Carbon monoxide (CO) is only one half of the “toxic twins” of smoke.  The other is hydrogen cyanide (HCN). The danger of hydrogen cyanide lies in the fact that it can immediately start to attack and kill the organs, in a fire and smoke scenario this danger is further enhanced by the presence of carbon monoxide. As the HCN attacks the organs, the CO is depriving the oxygen from those same organs. The common materials that are used in the makeup of our homes, businesses, clothing and automobiles - plastics, resins, nylon, polyurethane, melamine, acrylonitrile - produce very high levels of CO and HCN when burning.  These chemicals result in the slow painful death of asphyxiation and bodily organ shut-down.

Originating in Japan, but popularized within just the last few years, escape rooms allow small groups of people to work together using clues, riddles, teamwork, and communication to escape an enclosed space. Typically these rooms are themed, and involve competition with groups in other rooms. The clues are comprised of various combinations of puzzles, props, and riddles.

The thirst for adventure, an adrenaline rush, and an emotion filled social experience has contributed to the growing trend of escape room attractions In the United States.  There is an estimated 2,300 escape room facilities in the US. This is up from only twenty-two in 2014. Bringing in nearly $125,000 a year per room, this is a business that will continue to grow.  How can we prevent the ingredients of escape rooms (and nightmares) - locked in a windowless room, imminent danger, no way of escape - from becoming disaster and tragedy?

One tool we can use is building and fire codes and standards. In the United States there are two primary code-making bodies, the International Code Council (ICC), and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Each of these organizations publish multiple codes and standards including a building code and a fire code.  The ICC publishes the International Building Code (IBC), and the International Fire Code (IFC). The NFPA publishes NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code; NFPA 1, Fire Code; NFPA 101, Life Safety Code.

Utilization of these codes and standards for building construction, fire protection, or life safety is not mandated or required.  However, all fifty states do voluntarily adopt some version of these, or have created their own codes and standards based on their content.  Once adopted by the state, the provisions then become enforceable as law. Currently neither of these code bodies publishes a code or standard specific to “escape rooms”. They do have sections in their codes for “special amusement buildings”.  This is the section of code that is typically applied to these structures. Escape rooms and special amusements fall into the general building classification of an “assembly occupancy”.

The National Fire Protection Association defines an assembly occupancy as, “an occupancy (1) used for a gathering of 50 or more persons for deliberation, worship, entertainment, eating, drinking, amusement, awaiting transportation, or similar uses; or (2) used as a special amusement building, regardless of occupant load.”

Similarly, the International Code Council defines an assembly occupancy as an occupancy that “includes, among others, the use of a building or structure, or a portion thereof, for the gathering of persons for purposes such as civic, social or religious functions; recreation, food or drink consumption or awaiting transportation…”

A thorough review and application of these codes and standards generates the following mash-up of requirements.

Automatic Fire Sprinkler Systems.

A fire sprinkler system is required for the protection of these structures. Both code bodies allow the omission of fire sprinklers for amusements and attractions that are less than 1,000 sq.ft. and when the travel distance to an exit is less than 50 feet. If the space is less than 10 feet high and 160 feet wide, then sprinklers may also be omitted.

Smoke and Fire Detection.

Smoke alarms and other fire detection devices are required to be installed throughout the amusement space.

Fire Alarm System.

The smoke and fire detection devices are required to send any activation signals to a constantly monitored location.  Additionally, the system must be equipped with an emergency voice/communication system that can be clearly heard throughout the facility. If the fire alarm or fire sprinkler is activated, lighting should be activated so that the exits and exit pathways are clearly illuminated.  Any other sounds or visual application that may be confusing or conflicting are required to be terminated.

Exit Markings.

Exit signage is required to show the location of exit doors and pathways. Directional markings are also required, but they can be setup to be visible only in the event of an alarm or fire sprinkler activation.  Floor proximity exit signage is required and must be mounted with the bottom of the sign between 6” and 18” above the floor. The IBC states that the bottom of the sign must be no more than 8” above the floor. If the exit sign denotes the location of a door, the sign must be within 4” of the door frame.

Interior Finish.

Interior finish includes paints, fabrics, carpets, and other items that are applied to the walls, floors, or ceilings of a structure. These products are classified based on flame spread and smoke development. Class A is the most flame resistant, with a flame spread index of 0-25 and a smoke developed index of 0-450, and is the rating required for special amusement structures.

Another tool that can be utilized for the protection of occupants within escape rooms is to follow industry best practices. The primary best practice is to have a sufficient number of personnel, that are properly trained, to staff the escape room attraction. The staff must be knowledgeable of emergency procedures, fire alarm response, safe exiting and emergency egress procedures, and proper operations of the escape room components and access ways.  Staff should provide instructions on emergency procedures and exit locations to participants prior to the start of the event. Staff should monitoring the rooms via live video feeds. This allows for prompt notification of issues or injuries, and can also be an effective method of communication with participants, if needed.

In construction of the room itself, it is recommended that they have a simple progression and avoid many twists, turns, or small passageways. This contributes to a more quick and direct  exit access in case of emergency. Utilizing only low-voltage electronics for room equipment and props can minimize any potential fire hazard.

It is always a good practice for escape room owners and managers to maintain clear and open communication with the local fire department.  Regular inspections of fire protection and life safety equipment, and the space as a whole, should be encouraged and conducted.

Don’t let the fun, excitement, and faux-adventure of the special amusement of an  “escape room” become a tragedy. Before starting the game ensure that you know where the exits are, you know how to get out of the building, and you know how to notify staff of any issue that may arise.  

John Denley, whose company Escape Room International designs and builds escape rooms across the country, tells owners this, “In order to stay in business, you have to stay up with safety standards, and you have to play by the book. It helps everyone sleep better at night...You want to go into a place with as much safety as possible because you also want to know your investment is safe.”

The man who ran the escape room that killed Julia, Amelia, Gosia, Karolina, and Wiktoria has lost his livelihood and his standing in the community. He is facing up to eight years in prison for “intentionally creating a fire danger and unintentionally causing the deaths.”  At the girls’ funeral, Rev. Wojciech Pawlak eulogized, “In their friendship they were and will remain together. They were together when their lives were ending, they are together here and they will rest together in the cemetery. Forever…”

In Caves of Steel: Fire Protection and Life Safety for Underground Structures

From "Robbies World Blog"

In his serial, The Caves of Steel, Isaac Asimov writes of a future crowded nation where underground living is commonplace. However, in Beijing this is a current reality.  Nearly one million people live beneath the city. These people are referred to as the shuzu, or “rat tribe”, and they take advantage of the bunkers and fallout shelter systems that were dug in the late 1960’s to 1980’s. These subterranean dwellings present multiple issue to the fire protection and life safety of occupants. NFPA 101, Life Safety Code,  Chapter 11, Section 7, provides the basic requirements for life safety within underground and limited access structures.

Underground structures are defined as, “a structure or portions of a structure in which the floor level is below the level of exit discharge”.  A limited access structure is, “a structure or portion of a structure lacking emergency access openings”. To qualify as an emergency access opening the window, panel, or similar opening must meet the following criteria:

• minimum dimensions of 22" width x 24" high
• bottom of opening  less than 44" AFF
• unobstructed, identifiable, and accessible from both the interior and the exterior

It is important to clearly define whether the space is considered an underground or limited access structure. Each of these have their own, and overlapping, fire protection and life safety requirements. Both structure types must meet all of the following requirements:

• Fire sprinkler system is required (with some exceptions, noted in 101:11.7.3.4)
• Sprinklers may be omitted if the following applies:
• Occupant load is 50 or fewer for new structures, 100 or less for existing
• If the structure is permitted to have a single exit (per occupancy use), and the common path of travel does not exceed 50 feet.
• Emergency lighting is required, throughout

In addition to these requirements, structures that expressly meet the definition of underground structure must comply with these additional requirements.

• Automatic smoke venting systems (required, if following applies):
• Occupant load is greater than 100 persons
• Occupiable floors are greater than 30 feet below exit discharge
• Space contains combustible contents, interior finishes, or construction
• Exit stair enclosures are required to have code compliant signage that points to the direction of exit discharge

This is only an encapsulation of the fire protection requirements as outlined in the Life Safety Code. There are many other factors to be considered for safe underground dwelling. Aside from the building code, loads, and material requirements, there are very real emergency response issues. These challenges include ventilation, communication, orientation, access and egress, and patient removal.  In areas of occupied subterranean environments departments should be aware of their existence and have robust plans for the maintenance and enforcement of codes and standards, and emergency response.

NFPA 101 Code Changes for Aviation Facilities

The new editions of any code or standard often bring significant changes. The 2018 edition of NFPA 101, Life Safety Code has several changes to life safety at aviation facilities. Though there were multiple text deletions and revisions, there were several instance in which new material was added. Listed below, are the most significant revisions that may require action or operational changes.

Airport Traffic Control Towers (101:11.3.4)

• Terminology changed from “air traffic control tower” to “airport traffic control tower” (11.3.4)
• Language changed to clarify permissible uses of tower accessory levels. Language now clearly states, “uses that support tower operations”. (11.3.4.2)
• Added two additional requirements for allowance of a single exit (11.3.4.4.1):
• Fire alarm system is required in accordance with 9.6
• Smokeproof enclosures are to be provided in accordance with 7.2.3
• New requirement has been added for the provision of an emergency command center (11.3.4.8).
• Only applies to towers having an occupiable story 75’ above the lowest level of fire department access
• Provides a list of items and control functions that are to be located within and controllable from the emergency command center
• New requirement has been added for the development and provision of an Emergency Action Plan.
• The EAP should be developed and written in accordance with the guidance of NFPA 101:4.8.
• Annual fire drills for tower employees are required.
• Tower employees are to receive annual training on the emergency action plan

Two other sections of the Life Safety Code specifically apply to aircraft storage and servicing areas.  These are Chapter 40, Industrial Occupancies and Chapter 42, Storage Occupancies.  While their are no changes to the aviation specific sections of these chapters the chapters, as a whole, do have a few changes that should be observed.

• During construction, alteration, or demolition operations the requirements of NFPA 241 must be met. Sections 101:40.1.1.6 and 101:42.1.1.4 provide a directional pointer to this standard as referenced in NFPA 101:4.6.10.2.
• If hazardous materials are used the additional egress requirements of NFPA 101:7.12.2 must be met. (40.2.11.3; 42.2.11.3)
• Integrated testing is required in accordance with NFPA 101:9.11.4, which points to NFPA 4. (40.7.4; 42.9.4)

Related Posts:

• Fire Protection for Control Towers
• How to Write an Airport Emergency Plan
• Hazardous Materials
• When Is Integrated Testing Required?

Fire Protection for Control Towers

An air traffic control tower is defined as, “an enclosed structure or building with elevated levels for support of equipment or occupied for observation, control, operation, signaling, or similar limited use”.  NFPA 101, Chapter 11 provides the fire protection and life safety requirements for these structures.

This slideshare presentation provides an overview of the listed requirements.

Fire Codes for Air Traffic Control Towers from Aaron Johnson

This Slideshare is a small part of the 24-hour program,  Advanced Inspections for Aviation Facilities. A complete course syllabus and prospectus can be downloaded from, http://bit.ly/AviationInspection_course .

For scheduling or other inquiries contact, Aaron Johnson at thecodecoach@gmail.com .

Related Posts

• Understanding Building Construction Types and Loads
• Guide to Hangar Classifications
• ARFF for Structural Departments
• Conducting the 3-Step Risk Assessment

Host a Successful Tent Event

When industrial, manufacturing, or aviation facilities want to announce a new product, host a dignitary, or throw a party, the solution for where to host these people is often found in tents or temporary membrane structures.   These are a viable and cost effective solution, however, they require compliance with a different set of codes than the normal facility activities.  Used in these conditions, these tents must be protected as places of assembly.

There are three code sections that address the fire prevention and life safety requirements for tents:

• NFPA 101, Life Safety Code
• Chapter 11 - Special Structures and High Rise Buildings
• Chapter 12/13 - Assembly Occupancies
• NFPA 1, Fire Code
• Chapter 25 - Grandstands and Bleachers, Folding and Telescopic Seating, Tents, and Membrane Structures
• NFPA 102, Standard for Grandstands, Folding and Telescopic Seating, Tents, and Membrane Structures
• Chapter 8 - Tents

These codes state that any tent over 200 sq. ft. requires a permit and, therefore, must comply with these standards. 

All tents must be flame and fire resistant. This is evidenced by a certification stating that the tent has been tested and approved per the criteria of NFPA 701, Standard Methods of Fire Test for Flame Propagation of Textiles and Films. Certification should be sent to the local authority or agency responsible for the tent.  This certificaiton should also be sewn into the tent fabric. As an event planner, or facility safety person you should also request these certifications from the vendor.

If your event requires multiple tents, a minimum of 10’ between stake lines must be maintained.  This is to ensure an adequate means of egress and emergency access. Any tent stakes adjacent to a means of egress should be capped off or covered to avoid injury.

The ground under the tent and and at least 10’ outside of the tent, is required to be clear of flammable/combustible materials or vegetation. This would include straw, mulch, trees, grasses, and fuel sources, such as fueled vehicles.

Smoking inside of tents is not permitted.  “No Smoking” signage should be posted.

At least 1 (minimum 5lb, 2A:10BC) fire extinguisher is required.  Anything over 200 sq. ft. will require more than 1. The amount, extinguisher locations, coverages, and travel distance should be in accordance with NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers.

LP tanks (typically used for cooking and heating) cannot be installed within 5’ of the tent.  The tanks should be secured and protected from damage.

Exits shall be designated and clearly marked (minimum of 2).  This is required on every tent, but is more important for tents with closed sides. This ensures that certain areas inside the tent will be free of tables, chairs, stages, or any other elements, and will be maintained as a safe point of egress. If the even will be taking place at night, the lighted exit signage and emergency lights must be installed.

All electrical chords, boxes, and related components are to be protected from contact by the public.  This can be accomplished with proper covers, temporary fencing, and warning signage. Electric generators cannot be installed within 5' of a tent and are required to be protected from public contact, as well.

Assembly occupancies with more than 200 seats are required to have the seating permanently attached to the floor. The code realizes that in some instances this may be impractical, so it makes allowances for differing types of floor plans and seating arrangements. However, if the chairs will be in rows they must be attached in groups of not less than 3.

Download a FREE Tent Inspection Checklist that you can utilize to ensure that your next big "tent event" will be a success.

How to Store Hazardous Materials

Many industrial facilities, at some point, will find it necessary to create a hazardous material storage area.  Many of these materials and liquids will fall into the high hazard contents classification.  NFPA 101:6.2.2.4 defines a high hazard as contents “that are likely to burn with extreme rapidity or from which explosions are likely”.  The storage of these materials is outlined in the storage occupancy chapter of NFPA 101.  Though there are a lot of code requirements and nuances when creating these facilities.  This article should serve as a basic primer, that will send you in the right direction for further research.

The required structural components of the building itself shall meet the following:

• Exit and Emergency Lighting - shall be provided within the space (101:42.2.8; 101:42.2.9; 101:42.2.10).
• Means of Egress - two separate and remote means of egress shall be in place (101:42.2.4.1).  
• 1-hr. Rated Fire Wall - the code states that any area having a degree of hazard greater than normal shall be enclosed with a 1-hour rated fire barrier (101:42.3.2; 101:8.7.1.1).

NFPA 1, Fire Code, section 60 outlines specific requirements and items that must be in place:

• Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) to be available on the premises (1:60.5.1.2).
• Emergency Plan and Hazardous Materials Management Plan to be in place(1:60.1.5)
• “No Smoking” signage to be posted (1:60.5.1.5.1; 1:60.5.1.8.3).
• NFPA 704 placards to be posted near entrance to the building (1:60.5.1.8.2.1).
• All electrical wiring to be properly installed and covered (1:60.5.1.10.1).
• Incompatible materials are to be segregated and stored separately (1:60.5.1.12).

Other applicable codes and standards:

• NFPA 400, Hazardous Materials Code
• NFPA 704, Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of Materials for Emergency Response

These facilities and processes can be adequately protected only when each of these codes and standards are utilized and applied together.